Addressing Crisis in Myanmar: The Role of NGOs in Promoting International Human Rights Standards
Abstract
The Rohingya people have been victims of alleged severe human rights violations committed by the Myanmar government. In response to this situation, the United Nations (UN) has adopted some measures, including a United Nations General Assembly Resolution (UNGAR) A/RES/74/246 of 2019 that, inter alia, determines Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) as one of the key players in implementing its mandate. In practice, the NGOs' lack of international legal standing resulted in challenges in their operation. This paper examines the legal standing of NGOs' operations under international law. Specifically, it investigates NGOs' contributions to implementing UNGAR 74/246 in dealing with human rights violations in Myanmar. This article is based on legal research that combines library study and field research. The result indicated that Article 71 of the UN Charter needs to clarify the legal standing of NGOs’ operation in the international sphere, mainly to implement international human rights norms. In the context of the crisis in Myanmar, the NGOs have played a role as mandated by the UNGAR, including investigating gross human rights violations, providing gender-based protection and assistance, and assisting Myanmar in providing humanitarian assistance to all internally displaced persons within Rakhine. This paper recommends that all stakeholders cooperate to support the effectiveness of NGOs' contributions and peace-building efforts in Rakhine to achieve justice for all people in Myanmar.
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References
Book
Ware, Anthony and Costas Laoutides. Myanmar's' Rohingya's Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
Mahony, Liam. Proactive Presence Field Strategies for Civilian Protection. Geneva: Henry Dunant Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, 2006.
Journal Article
Ajibade, Idowu Mopelola. “A Synopsis: Rights, Responsibilities and Roles of Human Rights NGOs under International Law.” Responsibilities and Roles of Human Rights NGOs under International Law (2008): 1-21. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1300103
Argenal, A. “Human Rights Narratives from Myanmar: Decolonial and Relational Approaches to Solidarity.” International Journal of Human Rights Education 6, no. 1 (2022): 1-29.
Auli, Renata Christha and Garry Gumelar Pratama. “The Failure of United Nations System Under International Law: Its Contribution to Calamity and Ruin of The Rohingya Case.” Padjadjaran Journal of International Law 4, no. 2 (2020): 265-279. https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v4i2.415
Becker, Michael A. "The plight of the Rohingya: Genocide allegations and provisional measures in The Gambia v Myanmar at the International Court of Justice." Melbourne Journal of International Law 21, no. 2 (2020): 428-449.
https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/agispt.20211011054859
Beijerman, Martine. "Practice what you Preach? Limitations to Imposing Democratic Norms on NGOs." International Community Law Review 20, no. 1 (2018): 3-29. https://doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341364
Ben-Ari, Rephael. “The International Legal Status of International Non-Governmental Organizations: The Century-Long Normative Debate and its Future Prospects.” Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law 23, no. 1 (2014): 5-31.
Bilveer, Singh. “ASEAN, Myanmar and the Rohingya Issue.” Himalayan and Central Asian Studies 18, no. 1-2 (2014): 5-20.
Buchanan, Ruth. “Looking into Law and Development: Pedagogies and Politics of the Frame.” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 59 (1): i-xiii.
Charnovitz, Steve. “Non-governmental Organizations and International Law.” The American Journal of International Law 100, no. 2 (2006): 348-372.
Durkee, Melissa J. “International Lobbying Law.” Yale Law Journal 127, (2018): 1742-1826.
Edwards, George E. “The United Nations and Human Rights Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) - Seventy-Five Years of Consultations, Collaboration, and Contributions (1945-2000).” Pace International Law Review 33, no. 2 (2021): 327-340.
Gabel, Shirley Gatenio and Ningning Yang. “Transnational Advocacy at the United Nations for Social Workers.” Journal of Human Rights and Social Work 7 (2022): 417–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-022-00216-1
Gunawan, Yordan, Sonya Whisler Refisyanti, Aliza Mufida, Kukuh Derajat Takarub, and Aisah Nur. “Jurisdiction of International Court of Justice (ICJ) Over the Genocide Violations: With Special References to Rohingya Case.” Fiat Justisia: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum 14, no. 4 (2020): 313-336. https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v14no4.1900
Hamid, Abdul Ghafur. “The Rohingya Genocide Case (The Gambia v Myanmar): Breach of Obligations Erga Omnes Partes and the Issue of Standing.” International Islamic University Malaysia Law Journal 29, no. 1 (2021): 29-54. https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumlj.v29i1.630
Irrera, Daniela. "NGO's Roles in Humanitarian Interventions and Peace Support Operations." Perspectives 19, no. 1 (2010): 85-106.
Jati, Irawan. “Comparative Study of the Roles of ASEAN and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation in Responding to the Rohingya Crisis.” IKAT: The Indonesian Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 1, no. 1 (2017): 17-32. https://doi.org/10.22146/ikat.v1i1.27466
Jedele, Casey. “Domestic Restrictions on Non-governmental Organizations and Potential Protections through Legal Personality: Time for a Change?” Chicago Journal of International Law 21, no. 1 (2020): 118-147.
Jordaan, Eduard. “Worthy of membership? Rwanda and South Africa on the United Nations Human Rights Council.” African Human Rights Law Journal 21 (2021): 907-937. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2021/v21n2a36
Judge, Anthony J. “NGOs and Civil Society: Some Realities and Distortions.” Transnational Associations-Associations Transnationales, no. 3 (1995): 156-180.
Kovudhikulrungsri, Lailin and Saovanee Kaewjullakarn. “What Legal Measures Should ASEAN Apply to help the Rohingya?” South East Asia Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law 6, no. 4 (2015): 6-14.
Leyh, Brianne McGonigle. “The Role of Universities and Law Schools in Documenting Serious International Crimes and Advancing the Rule of Law.” Utrecht Law Review 17, no. 2 (2021): 87–101. https://doi.org/10.36633/ulr.666
Martens, Kerstin. “Examining the Non-Status of NGOs in International Law.” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 10, no. 2 (2003): 1-24.
Price, Richard. “Transnational Civil Society and Advocacy in World Politics.” World Politics 55, no. 4 (2003): 579-606. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2003.0024
Rosenbaum, Stephen A., David Tushaus, Britane Hubbard, and Kaylee Sharp-Bauer. “The Myanmar Shwe: Empowering Law Students, Teachers, and the Community Through Clinical Education and the Rule of Law.” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 28, no. 1 (2021): 153-230.
Wouters, Jan and Rossi Inggrid. “Human Rights NGOs: Role, Structure and Legal Status.” KU Leuven, Institute for International Law Working Paper, no. 14 (2001): 1-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2873440
Legal Documents
AICHR. Terms of Reference of the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights
American Convention on Human Rights
Council of Europe. European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom
Council of Europe. European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisation.
European Union. Council Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/239 of 21 February 2022 implementing Regulation (EU) No 401/2013 concerning restrictive measures in view of the situation in Myanmar/Burma
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Organization of African Unity. African Charter on Human and People’s Rights
United Nations. Economic and Social Council Resolution No. E/RES/1996/31 on Consultative Relationship between the United Nations and Non-Governmental Organizations.
United Nations. General Assembly Resolution No. A/RES/74/246 on Situation of Human Rights of Rohingya Muslims and Other Minorities in Myanmar.
United Nations. Human Rights Council Resolution No. A/HRC/RES/39/2 on Situation of Human Rights of Rohingyan Muslims and Other Minorities in Myanmar. 2018.
United Nations. Security Council Resolution No. S/RES/780 (1992), 6 October 1992.
United Nations. Security Council Resolution No. S/RES/1470 (2003), 28 March 2003.
United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Other Documents
Human Rights Council, Fifty-first session, A/HRC/51/4, “Report of the Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar”, 12 September–7 October 2022 Agenda item 4, Distr.: General 12 July 2022. https://iimm.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/A-HRC-51-4-E.pdf.
Minority Rights Group International. “World Directory of Minorities and Indegenous Peoples – Myanmar/Burma: Muslims and Rohingya.” https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749cdcc.html.
Reliefweb. “Gender Profile for Humanitarian Action: Rakhine, Kachin and Northern Shan, Myanmar.” https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/gender-profile-humanitarian-action-rakhine-kachin-and-northern-shan-myanmar-volume-2.
UN OCHA. “Myanmar Humanitarian Update No. 7.” https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/myanmar-humanitarian-update-no-7-27-may-2021.
United Nations General Assembly. Report of the Secretary General, No. A/57/387, 9 September 2002.
Interview
One NGO staff of Muslim Aid United Kingdom (UK) and Two NGO staffs of Padi Global Asia (PGA). “Situation of Human Rights of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar from the Perspective of Human Rights NGO Staffs.” (Their names are not revealed for confidentiality reasons). Interview by Ainna Khairunnisa, Banda Aceh, January 27, 2021.
Case Law
International Court hustice. Press Release. “Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar).”
International Court hustice. Summary of Application Instituting Proceedings and Request for Provisional Measures (The Gambia v. Myanmar), 23 January 2020.
International Court hustice. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Gam. V. Myan.), Judgment on Preliminary Objections (July 22, 2022).
Website Content
Alihusain, C. “The Influence of NGOs on International Law.” https://perma.cc/JZ7U-9EBP
Anadolu Agency. “Myanmar Submits 2nd Report on Rohingya Genocide to the UN's Top Court.” https://www.dailysabah.com/world/asia-pacific/myanmar-submits-2nd-report-on-rohingya-genocide-to-uns-top-court
BBC. “Myanmar Rohingya: Government Rejects ICJ Ruling.” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-51229796
Hondius, Frits. “Recognition and Protection of NGOs in International Law.” https://www.icnl.org/research/library/transnational_recognitionandprotectionofngos
Paul, James A. “NGO Access at the UN.” https://archive.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/177-un/31722-ngo-access-at-the-un.html
Schimmel, Noam. “The International Human Rights Law responsibilities of NGOs.” https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/the-international-human-rights-law-responsibilities-of-ngos
Ware, Anthony and Costas Laoutides. Myanmar's' Rohingya's Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
Mahony, Liam. Proactive Presence Field Strategies for Civilian Protection. Geneva: Henry Dunant Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, 2006.
Journal Article
Ajibade, Idowu Mopelola. “A Synopsis: Rights, Responsibilities and Roles of Human Rights NGOs under International Law.” Responsibilities and Roles of Human Rights NGOs under International Law (2008): 1-21. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1300103
Argenal, A. “Human Rights Narratives from Myanmar: Decolonial and Relational Approaches to Solidarity.” International Journal of Human Rights Education 6, no. 1 (2022): 1-29.
Auli, Renata Christha and Garry Gumelar Pratama. “The Failure of United Nations System Under International Law: Its Contribution to Calamity and Ruin of The Rohingya Case.” Padjadjaran Journal of International Law 4, no. 2 (2020): 265-279. https://doi.org/10.23920/pjil.v4i2.415
Becker, Michael A. "The plight of the Rohingya: Genocide allegations and provisional measures in The Gambia v Myanmar at the International Court of Justice." Melbourne Journal of International Law 21, no. 2 (2020): 428-449.
https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/agispt.20211011054859
Beijerman, Martine. "Practice what you Preach? Limitations to Imposing Democratic Norms on NGOs." International Community Law Review 20, no. 1 (2018): 3-29. https://doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341364
Ben-Ari, Rephael. “The International Legal Status of International Non-Governmental Organizations: The Century-Long Normative Debate and its Future Prospects.” Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law 23, no. 1 (2014): 5-31.
Bilveer, Singh. “ASEAN, Myanmar and the Rohingya Issue.” Himalayan and Central Asian Studies 18, no. 1-2 (2014): 5-20.
Buchanan, Ruth. “Looking into Law and Development: Pedagogies and Politics of the Frame.” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 59 (1): i-xiii.
Charnovitz, Steve. “Non-governmental Organizations and International Law.” The American Journal of International Law 100, no. 2 (2006): 348-372.
Durkee, Melissa J. “International Lobbying Law.” Yale Law Journal 127, (2018): 1742-1826.
Edwards, George E. “The United Nations and Human Rights Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) - Seventy-Five Years of Consultations, Collaboration, and Contributions (1945-2000).” Pace International Law Review 33, no. 2 (2021): 327-340.
Gabel, Shirley Gatenio and Ningning Yang. “Transnational Advocacy at the United Nations for Social Workers.” Journal of Human Rights and Social Work 7 (2022): 417–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-022-00216-1
Gunawan, Yordan, Sonya Whisler Refisyanti, Aliza Mufida, Kukuh Derajat Takarub, and Aisah Nur. “Jurisdiction of International Court of Justice (ICJ) Over the Genocide Violations: With Special References to Rohingya Case.” Fiat Justisia: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum 14, no. 4 (2020): 313-336. https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v14no4.1900
Hamid, Abdul Ghafur. “The Rohingya Genocide Case (The Gambia v Myanmar): Breach of Obligations Erga Omnes Partes and the Issue of Standing.” International Islamic University Malaysia Law Journal 29, no. 1 (2021): 29-54. https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumlj.v29i1.630
Irrera, Daniela. "NGO's Roles in Humanitarian Interventions and Peace Support Operations." Perspectives 19, no. 1 (2010): 85-106.
Jati, Irawan. “Comparative Study of the Roles of ASEAN and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation in Responding to the Rohingya Crisis.” IKAT: The Indonesian Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 1, no. 1 (2017): 17-32. https://doi.org/10.22146/ikat.v1i1.27466
Jedele, Casey. “Domestic Restrictions on Non-governmental Organizations and Potential Protections through Legal Personality: Time for a Change?” Chicago Journal of International Law 21, no. 1 (2020): 118-147.
Jordaan, Eduard. “Worthy of membership? Rwanda and South Africa on the United Nations Human Rights Council.” African Human Rights Law Journal 21 (2021): 907-937. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2021/v21n2a36
Judge, Anthony J. “NGOs and Civil Society: Some Realities and Distortions.” Transnational Associations-Associations Transnationales, no. 3 (1995): 156-180.
Kovudhikulrungsri, Lailin and Saovanee Kaewjullakarn. “What Legal Measures Should ASEAN Apply to help the Rohingya?” South East Asia Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law 6, no. 4 (2015): 6-14.
Leyh, Brianne McGonigle. “The Role of Universities and Law Schools in Documenting Serious International Crimes and Advancing the Rule of Law.” Utrecht Law Review 17, no. 2 (2021): 87–101. https://doi.org/10.36633/ulr.666
Martens, Kerstin. “Examining the Non-Status of NGOs in International Law.” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 10, no. 2 (2003): 1-24.
Price, Richard. “Transnational Civil Society and Advocacy in World Politics.” World Politics 55, no. 4 (2003): 579-606. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.2003.0024
Rosenbaum, Stephen A., David Tushaus, Britane Hubbard, and Kaylee Sharp-Bauer. “The Myanmar Shwe: Empowering Law Students, Teachers, and the Community Through Clinical Education and the Rule of Law.” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 28, no. 1 (2021): 153-230.
Wouters, Jan and Rossi Inggrid. “Human Rights NGOs: Role, Structure and Legal Status.” KU Leuven, Institute for International Law Working Paper, no. 14 (2001): 1-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2873440
Legal Documents
AICHR. Terms of Reference of the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights
American Convention on Human Rights
Council of Europe. European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom
Council of Europe. European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisation.
European Union. Council Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/239 of 21 February 2022 implementing Regulation (EU) No 401/2013 concerning restrictive measures in view of the situation in Myanmar/Burma
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Organization of African Unity. African Charter on Human and People’s Rights
United Nations. Economic and Social Council Resolution No. E/RES/1996/31 on Consultative Relationship between the United Nations and Non-Governmental Organizations.
United Nations. General Assembly Resolution No. A/RES/74/246 on Situation of Human Rights of Rohingya Muslims and Other Minorities in Myanmar.
United Nations. Human Rights Council Resolution No. A/HRC/RES/39/2 on Situation of Human Rights of Rohingyan Muslims and Other Minorities in Myanmar. 2018.
United Nations. Security Council Resolution No. S/RES/780 (1992), 6 October 1992.
United Nations. Security Council Resolution No. S/RES/1470 (2003), 28 March 2003.
United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Other Documents
Human Rights Council, Fifty-first session, A/HRC/51/4, “Report of the Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar”, 12 September–7 October 2022 Agenda item 4, Distr.: General 12 July 2022. https://iimm.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/A-HRC-51-4-E.pdf.
Minority Rights Group International. “World Directory of Minorities and Indegenous Peoples – Myanmar/Burma: Muslims and Rohingya.” https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749cdcc.html.
Reliefweb. “Gender Profile for Humanitarian Action: Rakhine, Kachin and Northern Shan, Myanmar.” https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/gender-profile-humanitarian-action-rakhine-kachin-and-northern-shan-myanmar-volume-2.
UN OCHA. “Myanmar Humanitarian Update No. 7.” https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/myanmar-humanitarian-update-no-7-27-may-2021.
United Nations General Assembly. Report of the Secretary General, No. A/57/387, 9 September 2002.
Interview
One NGO staff of Muslim Aid United Kingdom (UK) and Two NGO staffs of Padi Global Asia (PGA). “Situation of Human Rights of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar from the Perspective of Human Rights NGO Staffs.” (Their names are not revealed for confidentiality reasons). Interview by Ainna Khairunnisa, Banda Aceh, January 27, 2021.
Case Law
International Court hustice. Press Release. “Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar).”
International Court hustice. Summary of Application Instituting Proceedings and Request for Provisional Measures (The Gambia v. Myanmar), 23 January 2020.
International Court hustice. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Gam. V. Myan.), Judgment on Preliminary Objections (July 22, 2022).
Website Content
Alihusain, C. “The Influence of NGOs on International Law.” https://perma.cc/JZ7U-9EBP
Anadolu Agency. “Myanmar Submits 2nd Report on Rohingya Genocide to the UN's Top Court.” https://www.dailysabah.com/world/asia-pacific/myanmar-submits-2nd-report-on-rohingya-genocide-to-uns-top-court
BBC. “Myanmar Rohingya: Government Rejects ICJ Ruling.” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-51229796
Hondius, Frits. “Recognition and Protection of NGOs in International Law.” https://www.icnl.org/research/library/transnational_recognitionandprotectionofngos
Paul, James A. “NGO Access at the UN.” https://archive.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/177-un/31722-ngo-access-at-the-un.html
Schimmel, Noam. “The International Human Rights Law responsibilities of NGOs.” https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/the-international-human-rights-law-responsibilities-of-ngos
Published
2023-01-31
How to Cite
KHAIRUNNISA, Ainna; AIYUB KADIR, M.Yakub; MAHFUD, Mahfud.
Addressing Crisis in Myanmar: The Role of NGOs in Promoting International Human Rights Standards.
Udayana Journal of Law and Culture, [S.l.], v. 7, n. 1, p. 80-101, jan. 2023.
ISSN 2549-0680.
Available at: <https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/ujlc/article/view/90423>. Date accessed: 21 nov. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.24843/UJLC.2023.v07.i01.p05.
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