Data Profiling and Elections: Has Data-Driven Political Campaign Gone Too Far?
Abstract
In the age of digitalization, data-driven political campaign has rapidly shifted into sophisticated data profiling and big data analysis. In Indonesia, the privacy implications of data profiling for political purposes have not been thoroughly studied, much less regulated. This paper aims to conduct a comparative regulatory study between the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (EU GDPR) and Indonesian laws concerning personal data protection in facing the growing practice of data profiling for political purposes. In conclusion, in order to prevent unfair and non-transparent data profiling for political purposes in the upcoming 2019 general election, Indonesia should enact a comprehensive data protection law which provides data subjects with the right to information related to profiling and establishing independent supervisory authority.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Book
Djafar, Wahyudi, et.al., Protection of Personal Data in Indonesia, ELSAM: 2016.
Jaquet-Chiffelle, David-Olivier, “Direct and indirect profiling in the light of virtual persons.” in Profiling the European Citizen: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives edited by Mireille Hildebrandt and Serge Gutwirth, Germany: Springer, 2008.
Issenberg, Sasha, The Victory Lab: The Secret Science of Winning Campaigns, Portland: Broadway Books, 2012.
de Montjoye, Yves-Alexandre, Jordi Quoidbach, Florent Robic, and Alex Sandy Pentland. "Predicting Personality Using Novel Mobile Phone-Based Metrics." In International Conference on Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling, and Prediction, 48-55. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2013.
Journal Article
Blumenstock, Joshua, Gabriel Cadamuro, and Robert On. "Predicting Poverty and Wealth from Mobile Phone Metadata." Science 350, no. 6264 (2015): 1073-1076. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4420
Bodó, Balázs, Natali Helberger, and Claes H. de Vreese. "Political Micro-Targeting: a Manchurian Candidate or Just a Dark Horse?." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.776
Chester, Jeff, and K. Montgomery. "The role of digital marketing in political campaigns." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017).https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.773
Coudert, Fanny. "When Video Cameras Watch and Screen: Privacy Implications of Pattern Recognition Technologies." Computer Law & Security Review 26, no. 4 (2010): 377-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2010.03.007.
Dobber, Tom, Damian Trilling, Natali Helberger, and Claes H. de Vreese. "Two Crates of Beer and 40 Pizzas: The Adoption of Innovative Political Behavioural Targeting Techniques." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.777
De Filippi, Primavera. "Big Data, Big Responsibilities." Internet Policy Review 3, no. 1 (2014). https://doi.org/10.14763/2014.1.227
Kitchin, Rob, and Gavin McArdle. "What Makes Big Data, Big Data? Exploring the Ontological Characteristics of 26 Datasets." Big Data & Society 3, no. 1 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951716631130
Moura, Mauricio, and Melissa R. Michelson. "WhatsApp in Brazil: Mobilising Voters through Door-to-Door and Personal Messages." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.775
Nickerson, David W., and Todd Rogers, “Political Campaigns and Big Data”, Harvard Kennedy School Faculty Research Working Paper, No. RWP13-045, (2013): 6. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2354474.
Rubinstein, Ira S. "Voter Privacy in the Age of Big Data." Wis. L. Rev. (2014): 861-936.
Legal Documents
European Union. The General Data Protection Regulation 2016/679 of the European Union.
Indonesia. Law No. 12 Year 2005 concerning the Ratification of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of Indonesia
Indonesia. Law No. 7 Year 2017 concerning General Elections
Indonesia. Government Regulation No. 82 Year 2012 on Electronic System and Transaction Operation
Indonesia. Minister of Communication and Informatics Regulation No. 20 Year 2016 concerning Personal Data Protection in Electronic Systems
Indonesia. General Elections Commission Regulation No. 23 Year 2018 concerning Campaign of General Elections
Other Documents
Alex Rosenblat, Tamara Kneese, and danahboyd. “Networked Employment Discrimination”. https://datasociety.net/pubs/fow/EmploymentDiscrimination.pdf.
Christi, Wolfie and Sarah Spiekermann, “Networks of Control. A Report on Corporate Surveillance, Digital Tracking, Big Data & Privacy”. Crackedlab.org. http://crackedlabs.org/en/networksofcontrol.
Christi, Wolfie. "How Companies Use Personal Data Against People: Automated Disadvantage, Personalized Persuasion, and the Societal Ramifications of the Commercial Use of Personal Information". Crackedlab.org. https://crackedlabs.org/dl/CrackedLabs_Christl_DataAgainstPeople.pdf.
Datta, A., and M. C. Tschantz, “Automated Experiments on Ad Privacy Settings: A Tale of Opacity, Choice and Discrimination”, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1408.6491.pdf.
Federal Trade Commission.”Data Brokers: A Call for Transparency and Accountability”. May 2014.https://www.ftc.gov/reports/data-brokers-call-transparency-accountability-report-federal-trade-commission-may-2014.
Intel. “Deep Learning Enables Intelligent Billboard for Dynamic, Targeted Advertising on Tokyo Expressway”.https://builders.intel.com/docs/storagebuilders/deep_learning_enables_intelligent_billboard_for_dynamic_targeted_advertising_on_tokyo_expressway.pdf.
Jay, Rosemary P.Data Protection & Privacy. 2015, https://www.huntonprivacyblog.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2011/04/DDP2015_United_States.pdf
Privacy International. “The Keys to Data Protection: A Guide for Policy Engagement on Data Protection”.https://privacyinternational.org/data-protection-guide
UN Doc. A/HRC/17/27
UN Doc. A/HRC/23/40
UN Doc. A/HRC/34/7
UN Doc. A/RES/71/199
UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9, General Comment No. 16: Article 17
V. Ferraris AMAPOLA F. Bosco, G. Cafiero, E. D’Angelo, and Y. Suloyeva. “Defining Profiling”, http://www.unicri.it/special_topics/citizen_profiling/WP1_final_version_9_gennaio.pdf.
Website Content
Amid fears of election violence, Kenyans seek a way past inter-ethnic conflict. The Guardian. last modified August 4, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/aug/04/fear-election-violence-kenya-ethnic-divisions-hope-new-generation
Cambridge Analytica confirms involvement in Kenyan elections. The Star. last modified March 20, 2018 "https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2018/03/20/cambridge-analytica-confirms-involvement-in-kenyan-elections_c1732986
Data Is Power: Profiling and Automated Decision-Making in GDPR.Privacy International. 2017,https://privacyinternational.org/report/1718/data-power-profiling-and-automated-decision-making-gdpr
Election 2016: Marriage of big data, social data will determine the next president. Wired. https://www.wired.com/insights/2013/05/election-2016-marriage-of-big-data-social-data-will-determine-the-next-president/
Farisa, FitriaChusna. "Somasi KPU, DPD Gerindra DKI Dikritik". Kompas.com. last modified November 30, 2018 https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2018/11/30/18085861/somasi-kpu-dpd-gerindra-dki-dikritik
GolkarManfaatkan Big Data untukPemenanganLegislatif 2019. Tribunnews. last modified December 21, 2018 www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2018/12/21/golkar-manfaatkan-big-data-untuk-pemenangan-legislatif-2019
Green, Joshua and Sasha Issenberg. Inside the Trump bunker - meet the people powering his campaign. The Irish Examiner. last modified November 5, 2016. https://www.irishexaminer.com/viewpoints/analysis/inside-the-trump-bunker--meet-the-people-powering-his-campaign-429091.html
India to investigate alleged Cambridge Analytica data breach. The Guardian. last modified July 26, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/26/india-to-investigate-alleged-cambridge-analytica-data-breach-facebook
Justina Crabtee. "Here’s how Cambridge Analytica played a dominant role in Kenya’s chaotic 2017 elections". CNBC.com. last modified march 23, 2018.https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/23/cambridge-analytica-and-its-role-in-kenya-2017-elections.html
Kementerian Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia, "Rancangan Undang-Undang tentang Perlindungan Data Pribadi", https://peraturan.go.id/rancangan-undang-undang-tentang-perlindungan-data-pribadi.html
Kenya president's election campaign used firm hired by Trump: privacy group. Reuters. last modified December 15, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-politics/kenya-presidents-election-campaign-used-firm-hired-by-trump-privacy-group-idUSKBN1E82QS
Koalisi Perlindungan Data Pribadi: Pemilu Demokratis Harus Menjamin Perlindungan Data Privasi Pemilih”. ELSAM. https://elsam.or.id/2018/12/koalisi-perlindungan-data-pribadi-pemilu-demokratis-harus-menjamin-perlindungan-data-privasi-pemilih/
Kuwado, Fabian Januarius. 1 Juta Data Pengguna Asal Indonesia Bocor, Menkominfo Panggil Facebook”. Kompas.com. last modified April 5, 2018 https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2018/04/05/17361101/1-juta-data-pengguna-asal-indonesia-bocor-menkominfo-panggil-facebook
Llling, Sean. Cambridge Analytica, the shady data firm that might be a key Trump-Russia link, explained. Vox. last modified April 4, 2018 https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/10/16/15657512/cambridge-analytica-facebook-alexander-nix-christopher-wylie
Madowo, Larry. How Cambridge Analytica poisoned Kenya’s democracy. The Washington Post. last modified March 20, 2018 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/03/20/how-cambridge-analytica-poisoned-kenyas-democracy/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.4cf283c6a0ed
Nairobi. "Kenya: Post-Election Killings, Abuse". Human Rights Watch. last modified August 27, 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/08/27/kenya-post-election-killings-abuse
Moore, Jina. Cambridge Analytica Had a Role in Kenya Election, Too. The New York Times. last modified March 20, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/world/africa/kenya-cambridge-analytica-election.html
Moore, Jina. Violence Flares and Tensions Rise After Kenya Presidential Vote. The New York Times. last modified October 28, 2017 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/28/world/africa/kenya-election-uhuru-kenyatta-raila-odinga.html
Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian. last modified March 17, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica-facebook-influence-us-election
UU Data PribadiMasukPrioritas 2019". Kominfohttps://kominfo.go.id/content/detail/15264/uu-data-pribadi-masuk-prioritas-2019/0/sorotan_media
Satariano, Adam. G.D.P.R., a New Privacy Law, Makes Europe World’s Leading Tech Watchdog. The New York Times. last modified March 24, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/24/technology/europe-gdpr-privacy.html
State of Privacy Indonesia. Privacy International. January 2018, https://privacyinternational.org/state-privacy/1003/state-privacy-indonesia.
State of Privacy Kenya. Privacy International. January 2018, https://privacyinternational.org/state-privacy/1005/state-privacy-kenya#dataprotection
The CNIL’s restricted committee imposes a financial penalty of 50 Million euros against GOOGLE LLC. CNIL. Last modified january 21, 2018.https://www.cnil.fr/en/cnils-restricted-committee-imposes-financial-penalty-50-million-euros-against-google-llc.
The Foundation of International Human Rights Law. United Nations. www.un.org/en/sections/universal-declaration/foundation-international-human-rights-law/index.html
Tucker, Patrick. Defense One, “Refugee or Terrorist? OBM Thinks Is Software Has the Answer”. defenseone.com. last modified January 27,2016.http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2016/01/refugee-or-terrorist-ibm-thinks-its-software-hasanswer/125484/
What are the links between Cambridge Analytica and a Brexit campaign group?.Reuters. last modified March 22, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-facebook-cambridge-analytica-leave-eu/what-are-the-links-between-cambridge-analytica-and-a-brexit-campaign-group-idUSKBN1GX2IO
Djafar, Wahyudi, et.al., Protection of Personal Data in Indonesia, ELSAM: 2016.
Jaquet-Chiffelle, David-Olivier, “Direct and indirect profiling in the light of virtual persons.” in Profiling the European Citizen: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives edited by Mireille Hildebrandt and Serge Gutwirth, Germany: Springer, 2008.
Issenberg, Sasha, The Victory Lab: The Secret Science of Winning Campaigns, Portland: Broadway Books, 2012.
de Montjoye, Yves-Alexandre, Jordi Quoidbach, Florent Robic, and Alex Sandy Pentland. "Predicting Personality Using Novel Mobile Phone-Based Metrics." In International Conference on Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling, and Prediction, 48-55. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2013.
Journal Article
Blumenstock, Joshua, Gabriel Cadamuro, and Robert On. "Predicting Poverty and Wealth from Mobile Phone Metadata." Science 350, no. 6264 (2015): 1073-1076. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4420
Bodó, Balázs, Natali Helberger, and Claes H. de Vreese. "Political Micro-Targeting: a Manchurian Candidate or Just a Dark Horse?." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.776
Chester, Jeff, and K. Montgomery. "The role of digital marketing in political campaigns." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017).https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.773
Coudert, Fanny. "When Video Cameras Watch and Screen: Privacy Implications of Pattern Recognition Technologies." Computer Law & Security Review 26, no. 4 (2010): 377-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2010.03.007.
Dobber, Tom, Damian Trilling, Natali Helberger, and Claes H. de Vreese. "Two Crates of Beer and 40 Pizzas: The Adoption of Innovative Political Behavioural Targeting Techniques." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.777
De Filippi, Primavera. "Big Data, Big Responsibilities." Internet Policy Review 3, no. 1 (2014). https://doi.org/10.14763/2014.1.227
Kitchin, Rob, and Gavin McArdle. "What Makes Big Data, Big Data? Exploring the Ontological Characteristics of 26 Datasets." Big Data & Society 3, no. 1 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951716631130
Moura, Mauricio, and Melissa R. Michelson. "WhatsApp in Brazil: Mobilising Voters through Door-to-Door and Personal Messages." Internet Policy Review 6, no. 4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.775
Nickerson, David W., and Todd Rogers, “Political Campaigns and Big Data”, Harvard Kennedy School Faculty Research Working Paper, No. RWP13-045, (2013): 6. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2354474.
Rubinstein, Ira S. "Voter Privacy in the Age of Big Data." Wis. L. Rev. (2014): 861-936.
Legal Documents
European Union. The General Data Protection Regulation 2016/679 of the European Union.
Indonesia. Law No. 12 Year 2005 concerning the Ratification of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of Indonesia
Indonesia. Law No. 7 Year 2017 concerning General Elections
Indonesia. Government Regulation No. 82 Year 2012 on Electronic System and Transaction Operation
Indonesia. Minister of Communication and Informatics Regulation No. 20 Year 2016 concerning Personal Data Protection in Electronic Systems
Indonesia. General Elections Commission Regulation No. 23 Year 2018 concerning Campaign of General Elections
Other Documents
Alex Rosenblat, Tamara Kneese, and danahboyd. “Networked Employment Discrimination”. https://datasociety.net/pubs/fow/EmploymentDiscrimination.pdf.
Christi, Wolfie and Sarah Spiekermann, “Networks of Control. A Report on Corporate Surveillance, Digital Tracking, Big Data & Privacy”. Crackedlab.org. http://crackedlabs.org/en/networksofcontrol.
Christi, Wolfie. "How Companies Use Personal Data Against People: Automated Disadvantage, Personalized Persuasion, and the Societal Ramifications of the Commercial Use of Personal Information". Crackedlab.org. https://crackedlabs.org/dl/CrackedLabs_Christl_DataAgainstPeople.pdf.
Datta, A., and M. C. Tschantz, “Automated Experiments on Ad Privacy Settings: A Tale of Opacity, Choice and Discrimination”, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1408.6491.pdf.
Federal Trade Commission.”Data Brokers: A Call for Transparency and Accountability”. May 2014.https://www.ftc.gov/reports/data-brokers-call-transparency-accountability-report-federal-trade-commission-may-2014.
Intel. “Deep Learning Enables Intelligent Billboard for Dynamic, Targeted Advertising on Tokyo Expressway”.https://builders.intel.com/docs/storagebuilders/deep_learning_enables_intelligent_billboard_for_dynamic_targeted_advertising_on_tokyo_expressway.pdf.
Jay, Rosemary P.Data Protection & Privacy. 2015, https://www.huntonprivacyblog.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2011/04/DDP2015_United_States.pdf
Privacy International. “The Keys to Data Protection: A Guide for Policy Engagement on Data Protection”.https://privacyinternational.org/data-protection-guide
UN Doc. A/HRC/17/27
UN Doc. A/HRC/23/40
UN Doc. A/HRC/34/7
UN Doc. A/RES/71/199
UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9, General Comment No. 16: Article 17
V. Ferraris AMAPOLA F. Bosco, G. Cafiero, E. D’Angelo, and Y. Suloyeva. “Defining Profiling”, http://www.unicri.it/special_topics/citizen_profiling/WP1_final_version_9_gennaio.pdf.
Website Content
Amid fears of election violence, Kenyans seek a way past inter-ethnic conflict. The Guardian. last modified August 4, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/aug/04/fear-election-violence-kenya-ethnic-divisions-hope-new-generation
Cambridge Analytica confirms involvement in Kenyan elections. The Star. last modified March 20, 2018 "https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2018/03/20/cambridge-analytica-confirms-involvement-in-kenyan-elections_c1732986
Data Is Power: Profiling and Automated Decision-Making in GDPR.Privacy International. 2017,https://privacyinternational.org/report/1718/data-power-profiling-and-automated-decision-making-gdpr
Election 2016: Marriage of big data, social data will determine the next president. Wired. https://www.wired.com/insights/2013/05/election-2016-marriage-of-big-data-social-data-will-determine-the-next-president/
Farisa, FitriaChusna. "Somasi KPU, DPD Gerindra DKI Dikritik". Kompas.com. last modified November 30, 2018 https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2018/11/30/18085861/somasi-kpu-dpd-gerindra-dki-dikritik
GolkarManfaatkan Big Data untukPemenanganLegislatif 2019. Tribunnews. last modified December 21, 2018 www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2018/12/21/golkar-manfaatkan-big-data-untuk-pemenangan-legislatif-2019
Green, Joshua and Sasha Issenberg. Inside the Trump bunker - meet the people powering his campaign. The Irish Examiner. last modified November 5, 2016. https://www.irishexaminer.com/viewpoints/analysis/inside-the-trump-bunker--meet-the-people-powering-his-campaign-429091.html
India to investigate alleged Cambridge Analytica data breach. The Guardian. last modified July 26, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/26/india-to-investigate-alleged-cambridge-analytica-data-breach-facebook
Justina Crabtee. "Here’s how Cambridge Analytica played a dominant role in Kenya’s chaotic 2017 elections". CNBC.com. last modified march 23, 2018.https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/23/cambridge-analytica-and-its-role-in-kenya-2017-elections.html
Kementerian Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia, "Rancangan Undang-Undang tentang Perlindungan Data Pribadi", https://peraturan.go.id/rancangan-undang-undang-tentang-perlindungan-data-pribadi.html
Kenya president's election campaign used firm hired by Trump: privacy group. Reuters. last modified December 15, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-politics/kenya-presidents-election-campaign-used-firm-hired-by-trump-privacy-group-idUSKBN1E82QS
Koalisi Perlindungan Data Pribadi: Pemilu Demokratis Harus Menjamin Perlindungan Data Privasi Pemilih”. ELSAM. https://elsam.or.id/2018/12/koalisi-perlindungan-data-pribadi-pemilu-demokratis-harus-menjamin-perlindungan-data-privasi-pemilih/
Kuwado, Fabian Januarius. 1 Juta Data Pengguna Asal Indonesia Bocor, Menkominfo Panggil Facebook”. Kompas.com. last modified April 5, 2018 https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2018/04/05/17361101/1-juta-data-pengguna-asal-indonesia-bocor-menkominfo-panggil-facebook
Llling, Sean. Cambridge Analytica, the shady data firm that might be a key Trump-Russia link, explained. Vox. last modified April 4, 2018 https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/10/16/15657512/cambridge-analytica-facebook-alexander-nix-christopher-wylie
Madowo, Larry. How Cambridge Analytica poisoned Kenya’s democracy. The Washington Post. last modified March 20, 2018 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/03/20/how-cambridge-analytica-poisoned-kenyas-democracy/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.4cf283c6a0ed
Nairobi. "Kenya: Post-Election Killings, Abuse". Human Rights Watch. last modified August 27, 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/08/27/kenya-post-election-killings-abuse
Moore, Jina. Cambridge Analytica Had a Role in Kenya Election, Too. The New York Times. last modified March 20, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/world/africa/kenya-cambridge-analytica-election.html
Moore, Jina. Violence Flares and Tensions Rise After Kenya Presidential Vote. The New York Times. last modified October 28, 2017 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/28/world/africa/kenya-election-uhuru-kenyatta-raila-odinga.html
Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian. last modified March 17, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica-facebook-influence-us-election
UU Data PribadiMasukPrioritas 2019". Kominfohttps://kominfo.go.id/content/detail/15264/uu-data-pribadi-masuk-prioritas-2019/0/sorotan_media
Satariano, Adam. G.D.P.R., a New Privacy Law, Makes Europe World’s Leading Tech Watchdog. The New York Times. last modified March 24, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/24/technology/europe-gdpr-privacy.html
State of Privacy Indonesia. Privacy International. January 2018, https://privacyinternational.org/state-privacy/1003/state-privacy-indonesia.
State of Privacy Kenya. Privacy International. January 2018, https://privacyinternational.org/state-privacy/1005/state-privacy-kenya#dataprotection
The CNIL’s restricted committee imposes a financial penalty of 50 Million euros against GOOGLE LLC. CNIL. Last modified january 21, 2018.https://www.cnil.fr/en/cnils-restricted-committee-imposes-financial-penalty-50-million-euros-against-google-llc.
The Foundation of International Human Rights Law. United Nations. www.un.org/en/sections/universal-declaration/foundation-international-human-rights-law/index.html
Tucker, Patrick. Defense One, “Refugee or Terrorist? OBM Thinks Is Software Has the Answer”. defenseone.com. last modified January 27,2016.http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2016/01/refugee-or-terrorist-ibm-thinks-its-software-hasanswer/125484/
What are the links between Cambridge Analytica and a Brexit campaign group?.Reuters. last modified March 22, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-facebook-cambridge-analytica-leave-eu/what-are-the-links-between-cambridge-analytica-and-a-brexit-campaign-group-idUSKBN1GX2IO
Published
2019-01-31
How to Cite
YOFIRA KARUNIAN, Alia; HALME, Helka; SÖDERHOLM, Ann-Marie.
Data Profiling and Elections: Has Data-Driven Political Campaign Gone Too Far?.
Udayana Journal of Law and Culture, [S.l.], v. 3, n. 1, p. 95-122, jan. 2019.
ISSN 2549-0680.
Available at: <https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/ujlc/article/view/44474>. Date accessed: 23 nov. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.24843/UJLC.2019.v03.i01.p05.
Section
Articles
