Legal and Cultural Foundations for Improving Criminal Liability for Wartime Collaboration in Ukraine
Abstract
Following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukrainian territories, there have been significant changes in Ukrainian criminal legislation, particularly regarding the liability of individuals for collaboration with the aggressor country. Prior to 2022, the law included provisions specifically addressing treason, which encompassed three forms of criminal behavior: defecting to the enemy during wartime, espionage, and aiding foreign entities in subversive activities against Ukraine. New provisions have been introduced to establish liability for wartime collaboration in addition to treason; however, these provisions lack legal clarity and precision. This study analyzes relevant court decisions under Article 111-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine to identify patterns in judicial practice and assess both the effectiveness and shortcomings of the current legal framework. Beyond the legal aspects, the paper also examines the cultural dimension of collaboration, focusing on the preservation of cultural heritage amid occupation and information warfare. This research aims to develop scientifically grounded principles for legislators to consider when amending the provisions related to criminal liability for wartime collaboration. The methodology of this research employs historical, comparative-legal, logical, and system-structural methods. This paper proposes the establishment of a special commission tasked with refining criminal law to address the complex nature of liability for wartime collaboration. The outcomes of this commission’s work should produce well-founded legal norms that are economically, politically, and socially balanced, clearly defining the forms of criminally punishable wartime collaboration and establishing appropriate sanctions.
Downloads
References
Chernohorenko, Illia. "Implementation of the European Court of Human Rights Judgements as an Instrument for Recovery of Ukraine and its Accession to the European Union," in Ukraine's Journey to Recovery, Reform and Post-War Reconstruction, ed. Silviu Nate (Cham: Springer, 2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66434-2_10
Hausler, Kristin, and Berenika Drazewska. How Does International Law Protect Ukrainian Cultural Heritage in War? London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2022. https://www.biicl.org/documents/11200_how_does_international_law_protect_ukrainian_cultural_heritage_in_war.pdf.
Pysmenskyi, Evhen. Investigating collaborative activities. Kyiv: Dakor Publishing House, 2024.
Rigoni, Clara. “Crime, Diversity, Culture, and Cultural Defense,” in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology, 34-78. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.409
Vozniuk, Andrii Andriyovych. Novels of the Criminal Legislation of Ukraine, Adopted in the Conditions of Martial law. Kyiv: Norma Prava, 2022.
Journal Article
Ahmad, Ayesha and Simon Dein. “Does Culture Impact on Notions of Criminal Responsibility and Action? The Case of Spirit Possession,” Transcultural Psychiatry 53, no 5 (2016): 674-682. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461516661642
Antonyuk, Natalia. “A Criminal and Legal Assessment of Collaborationism: A Change of Views in Connection with Russia’s Military Aggression against Ukraine,” Access to Justice in Eastern Europe 5, no. 3 (2022): 137-145. https://doi.org/10.33327/AJEE-18-5.3-n000312
Babikov, Oleksandr et.al. “The Observance of Human Rights and Freedoms during the Covert Obtaining of Information in Criminal Proceedings.” Bialostockie Studia Prawnicze 29, no. 4 (2024): 197–216. https://doi.org/10.15290/bsp.2024.29.04.12
Benitskiy Andrii. ‘Features of Criminal-Legal Qualification Crimes Provided for in Part 4 Article 1111 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine and Their Relationship with Related Elements of Crimes.” Law of Ukraine 11, no. 88 (2022): 88-99. https://doi.org/10.33498/louu-2022-11-088
Bohdan, Yulia, Oleksandr Kalynovskyi, and Sofiya Shchur. “Civilian Hostage Legal Protection in Times of War: Pursuing Effective Tools to Ensure Their Constitutional Rights and Freedoms.” Journal of International Legal Communication 11, no. 4 (2023): 80-88. https://doi.org/10.32612/uw.27201643.2023.11.4.pp.80-88
Brittan, Harrell. “Cultural Conquest: Russia's Strategic Assault on Ukrainian Heritage as Both a Catalyst for and a Casualty of Conflict.” American University International Law Review 40, no. 2 (2025): 537-574. https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/auilr/vol40/iss2/5?utm_source=digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu%2Fauilr%2Fvol40%2Fiss2%2F5&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
Dzehtsiarou, Kanstantsin. “What is Law for the European Court of Human Rights?.” Georgetown Journal of International Law 49, no. 1 (2017): 88-134. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3212800
Holovkin, Bohdan et.al. “Fight against corruption-related crimes in wartime in Ukraine.” International Annals of Criminology 61, no. 3-4 (2023): 384–409. https://doi.org/10.1017/cri.2023.31
Honcharenko, Kyu. “Treason or Collaborative Activity?” In: Problems of Qualification of Crimes Against the Foundations of National Security. Law: Collection of Scientific Works of Kharkiv National Pedagogical University named after H. S. Skovoroda 36 (2022): 137-142. https://doi.org/10.34142/23121661.2022.36.16
Jakubowski, Andrzej. “Safeguarding Ukraine’s Cultural Heritage in War: Identifying the Obligations of Nonparties to the Conflict, with Special Focus on the European Union.” Polish Review of International and European Law 12, no 2 (2023): 141-65. https://journals.indexcopernicus.com/api/file/viewByFileId/1956512
Koçak Bilgin, Yasemin, and Eda Hazarhun. “The Cultural Heritage Impact of The Russia-Ukrainian War.” Turizm Akademik Dergisi 10, no. 2 (2023): 307-321. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/3118476
Kosciejew, Marc. “Endangered Cultural Heritage in the Russia–Ukraine War: Comparing and Critiquing Interventions by International Cultural Heritage Organizations.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 29, no 11 (2023): 1158–1177. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2023.2243457
Kosciejew, Marc. “Facing Threats to Libraries and Cultural Heritage in the Russia-Ukraine War: A Case Study and Comparative Review of the Library and Information Community’s’ Responses to the Conflict.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 57, no 1 (2023): 191-210. https://doi.org/10.1177/09610006231208026
Kovalchuk, Olena. "Criminal Liability for State Treason: Domestic and Foreign Experience." Bulletin of Lviv Polytechnic National University. Series: Legal Sciences 11, no. 2 (2024): 73-81. https://doi.org/10.23939/law2024.42.073
Kuts, Vitaly. and Trynova, Yana. “Concerning the Concept of Criminal Offense and Its Types,” Legal Horizons 21, no. 2 (2024): 46–52. https://doi.org/10.54477/LH.25192353.2024.2.pp.46-52
Lemmens, Paul. “The European Court of Human Rights - Can there be too much Success?.” Journal of Human Rights Practice 14, no. 1 (2022): 169-190. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/huac019
Malovatskyi, Oleksii. “The Correlation of the Responsibility of the Individual and the State within the Legal Framework as a Prerequisite for International Legal Responsibility of the State.” Legal Horizons 16, no. 1 (2023): 7–17. https://doi.org/10.54477/LH.25192353.2023.1.pp.7-17
Mishchuk, Mykola. "Features of Responsibility for Criminal Offenses during Martial Law in Ukraine: A Legislative Review 2022-2023." Visegrad Journal on Human Rights 5 (2023): 34-44. https://doi.org/10.61345/1339-7915.2023.5.5
Movchan, Roman et al. “Collaboration with the Enemy under the Criminal Law of Ukraine and other European States: Comparative Research.” Amazonia Investiga 14, no. 85 (2025): 45-57. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2025.85.01.4
Nizovtsev, Yuriy Yu., Andrii M Lyseiuk, and Mykhailo Kelman. “From Self-affirmation to National Security Threat: Analyzing Ukraine’s Foreign Experience in Countering Cyberattacks.” Revista Cientifica General Jose Maria Cordova 20, no. 38 (2022): 355–370. https://doi.org/10.21830/19006586.905
Prasetyo, Dimas Agung, and Siti Masitoh. “Empowering Millennial Generation through Literacy of Historical Awareness.” Jurnal Sosial Humaniora 6, no. 1 (2023): 125–143. https://doi.org/10.26740/jsh.v6n1.p125-143
Sobko, Ganna et al. “Military Violent Crime in the Ukrainian Criminal Law System: Analysis, Gaps and Prospects.” Archiwum Kryminologii 46, no. 2 (2024): 5–27. https://czasopisma.inp.pan.pl/index.php/ak/article/view/4226
Legal Documents
Council of Europe. Parliamentary Assembly Resolution No 2067 “Missing Persons during the Conflict in Ukraine”, 2015. https://pace.coe.int/en/files/21970
Council of Europe. Parliamentary Assembly Resolution No 2112 “Humanitarian concerns regarding People Captured during the War in Ukraine”, 2016. https://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/mpz2/docs/2264_rez_2112.htm
Council of Europe. Resolution of the Parliamentary Assembly No 2198 “Humanitarian Consequences of the War in Ukraine”, 2018. https://rm.coe.int/-2198-2018-/1680785d74
Czech Republic. Criminal Code of the Czech Republic, 2009. https://www.zakonyprolidi.cz/cs/2009-40
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention), 75 UNTS 287, 12 August 1949, https://www.refworld.org/legal/agreements/icrc/1949/en/32227
Italian Republic. Criminal Code of Italy, 1993. https://canestrinilex.com/assets/Uploads/pdf/cf70b10e21/Italian-Code-of-Criminal-Procedure-canestriniLex.pdf
Kingdom of Denmark. Criminal Code of Denmark, 2013. https://www.retsinformation.dk/eli/lta/2013/1028#Kap12
Kingdom of Norway. Criminal Code of Norway, 2005. https://lovdata.no/dokument/NLE/lov/2005-05-20-28
Kingdom of Spain. Criminal Code of the Kingdom of Spain, 1995. https://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Penal/lo10-1995.l2t23.html
Ministry of Justice of Ukraine. “Armed Aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine is an Undermining of the International Legal Order,” 2022. https://www.kmu.gov.ua/news/marharyta-sokorenko-zbroina-ahresiia-rf-proty-ukrainy-tse-pidryv-mizhnarodnoho-pravovoho-poriadku
PACE. Recommendation No. 2076 “Missing persons during the conflict in Ukraine”, 2015. https://pace.coe.int/en/files/21971
PACE. Recommendation No. 2198 “Humanitarian consequences of the war in Ukraine, Russia’s military actions against Ukraine”, 2018. https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=24432
PACE. Resolution No. 2132 “Political consequences of the Russian aggression in Ukraine”, 2016. https://pace.coe.int/en/files/23166/html
Republic of France. Criminal Code of France, 2024. https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/section_lc/LEGITEXT000006070719/LEGISCTA000006136044/#LEGISCTA000006136044
Republic of Georgia. Criminal Code of Georgia, 1999. https://matsne.gov.ge/ru/document/view/16426?publication=254
Republic of Lithuania. Criminal Code of the Republic of Lithuania, 2000. https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/ TAIS.111555
Republic of Turkey. Criminal Code of Turkey, 2005. https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuat?MevzuatNo=5237&MevzuatTur=1&MevzuatTertip=5
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, -, 14 May 1954, https://www.refworld.org/legal/agreements/unesco/1954/en/35015
United Nations General Assembly. Resolution No. A/RES/68/262 (2014) on “Territorial Integrity of Ukraine.” https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/a_res_68_262.pdf
United Nations General Assembly. Resolution No. A/RES/71/205 “Situation of Human Rights in the Temporarily Occupied Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the City of Sevastopol, Ukraine”, 2016. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Countries/UA/Crimea2014_2017_EN.pdf
United Nations General Assembly. Resolution No. A/RES/ES-11/1 (2022) “On Aggression against Ukraine”. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3965290?ln=ru
Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. Law No 3354-IX “About law-making activity”, 2023. https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3354-20#n341
Other Document
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Situation of Human Rights in the Temporarily Occupied Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the City of Sevastopol (Ukraine). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Countries/UA/Crimea2014_2017_EN.pdf
Case Law
International Criminal Court. “Situation No ICC-01/22. The situation in Ukraine”, 2022. https://www.icc-cpi.int/situations/ukraine
International Court of Justice. Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 16 March 2022, I.C.J. Reports 2022, p. 211
Conference
Balobanova, Daria. “Criminal liability for collaborative activity under the legislation of the Czech Republic,” In Current Issues of Criminal-Legal Qualification, Documentation and Investigation of Collaborationism: Materials of the II All-Ukrainian Scientific and Practical Conference (2014): 256-262.
Gavrilyuk, Valerii. “Peculiarities of distinguishing collaborative activity (Article 1111 of the Criminal Code) from treason (Article 111 of the Criminal Code),” In Current Issues of Criminal-Legal Qualification, Documentation and Investigation of Collaborationism: Materials of the All-Ukrainian Scientific and Practical Conference (2023): 27-29. http://dspace.oduvs.edu.ua/bitstream/
Kulyk, Lyudmila. “Concept and content of collaborative activity,” In Current Issues of Criminal-Legal Qualification, Documentation and Investigation of Collaborationism: Materials of the All-Ukrainian Scientific and Practical Conference (2023): 56-59. http://dspace.oduvs.edu.ua/bitstream/
Malanich, Mykola. “The current state of the definition of the category of collaborationism in the conditions of martial law,” In Current Issues of Criminal-Legal Qualification, Documentation and Investigation of Collaborationism: Materials of the All-Ukrainian Scientific and Practical Conference (2023): 59–60. http://dspace.oduvs.edu.ua/bitstream/
Movchan, Roman. “Criminal law novel about Collaborative Activity: Law-Making and Law-Enforcement Problems.” In Current Issues of Criminal-Legal Qualification, Documentation and Investigation of Collaborationism: Materials of the All-Ukrainian Scientific and Practical Conference (2024): 73-76. http://dspace.oduvs.edu.ua/bitstream/
Vaida, TS. “Collaborative activity in war conditions: concepts, documentation and criminal liability for illegal actions/activities,” Current Issues of Criminal-Legal Qualification, Documentation and Investigation of Collaborationism: Materials of the All-Ukrainian Scientific and Practical Conference (2023): 34-36. http://dspace.oduvs.edu.ua/bitstream/
Website Content
Council of Europe. "Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Ukraine," Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, 2023. https://www.coe.int/en/web/congress/-/destruction-of-cultural-heritage-in-ukraine.
Intent. Historic decision of the UN International Court of Justice, 2022. https://intent.press/news/world/2022/istorichne-rishennya-mizhnarodnogo-sudu-oon-povnij-tekst/
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Customary International Humanitarian Law Database, Rule 38: Attacks against Cultural Property. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl/v1/rule38
Medirent. “The Unified State Register of Court Decisions.” https://medirentgroup.com/projects/project/yedynyi-derzhavnyi-reiestr-sudovykh-rishen
Ministry of Culture and Information Policy of Ukraine, “Reports on Cultural Losses in Temporarily Occupied Territories,” 2023. https://mcsc.gov.ua/news/1453-pamyatky-kulturnoyi-spadshhyny-ta-2286-obyektiv-kulturnoyi-infrastruktury-postrazhdaly-v-ukrayini-cherez-rosijsku-agresiyu/
OSCE. Parliamentarians Debate Crisis in Ukraine. Annual Session News, 2014. https://www.oscepa.org/ru/dokumenty/annual-sessions/2014-baku/annual-session-news-2/2537-day-5/file
UNESCO. Emergency Monitoring of Cultural Property in Ukraine, 2024. https://www.unesco.org/en/ukraine-war/emergency