Gross Violations of Human Rights Veiled within Xinjiang Political Reeducation Camps
Abstract
Xinjiang reeducation camps are dedicated to cleanse the practice and existence of religion, and majorly subjects the Uighur moslems. China has constantly denied the conduct of gross human rights violations of Uighur moslems within Xinjiang political reeducation camps. This article will elaborate on the actions done by Xinjiang officials to unveil the gross violations of human rights towards the Uighurs within Xinjiang reeducation camps. The article will also examine the available possibility to criminally hold the perpetrators liable and provide effective relief to the victims. This article is constructed using normative legal research method with statutory, case, and fact approaches, along with conceptual/analytical approach. The result shows that there exist gross violations of human rights towards the Uighurs within Xinjiang reeducation camps in a form of arbitrary detention and torture. Moreover, there are some available possibilities to criminally hold the perpetrators liable and provide effective relief to the victims, namely through a municipal court proceeding and through the Committee against Torture.
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References
REFERENCES
Books
Burgers J. &Danelius H. (1988). The United Nations Convention against Torture. Leiden. The Netherlands: Brill Academy Publisher.
Joseph S., et al. (2005) TheInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Cases, Materials, and Commentary Second Edition. Oxford. UK: Oxford University Press.
Nowak, M. (1993). UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary. Strasbourg. Germany: NP Engel.
Nowak, M. (2002), Introduction to The International Human Rights Regime. Leiden. The Netherlands: Brill Academy Publisher.
Manfred Nowak and Elizabeth McArthur, (2005), The United Nations Convention Against Torture: A Commentary, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Smith R. (2010). Texts and Materials on International Human Rights Second Edition. Abingdon-on-Thames. UK: Routledge.
Trindade, C. (1983). The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law: its Rationale in the International Protection of Individual Rights. England. UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Journals
Chitimira, H, &Mokone, P. (2017). A General Legislative Analysis of "Torture" as a Human Rights Violation in Zimbabwe. PER: Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad, 20(1), 1-41, 10.17159/1727-3781/2017/v20i0a1271.
Clarke M. (2010). Widening the Net: China's Anti-Terror Laws and Human Rights in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The International Journal of Human Rights, 14(1), 542-554, doi: 10.1080/13642980802710855.
Dugard J, 1982, The Application of Customary International Law Affecting Human Rights by National Tribunal, American Society of International Law, 76, 245-251,doi: 10.1017/S0272503700030755.
Grose T. A., The Xinjiang Class: Education, Integration, and the Uyghurs, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 30(1), 97-109, doi: 10.1017/S1468109915000377.
M. Rayila. (2011). The Pain of a Nation: The Invisibility of Uyghurs in China Proper. The Equal Rights Review, Vol. 6.
McCorquodale R. & La Forgia R. (2001). Taking off the Blindfolds: Torture by non-State Actors. Human Rights Law Review, Vol. 189.
Saragih M. F. (2016). Tinjauan Yuridis Pelanggaran HAM terhadap Muslim Uighur di China Ditinjau dari Hukum Humaniter. Jurnal Fakultas Hukum USU, 4(2).
Trevaskes S. (2007) Severe and Swift Justice in China. British Journal of Criminology, 47(1), 23-41, doi: 10.1093/bjc/azl085.
Vicziany M. (2003). State Responses to Islamic Terrorism in Western China and Their Impact on South Asia. Contemporary South Asia, 12(2), 243-262, doi: 10.1080/095849302000147690.
Zenovic P., 2012, Human Rights Enforcement via Peremptory Norms- A Challenge to State Sovereignty, RSGL Research Papers No. 6
Zenz A. (2018). ‘Thoroughly Reforming Them Towards a Healthy Heart Attitude’: China’s Political Re-Education Campaign in Xinjiang. Central Asian Survey, 38(1), 102-129, doi: 10.1080/02634937.2018.1507997.
Zhang, S., Xu, M., Li, X., Fang, H., Yang, S., & Liu, J. (2013). Implicit Trust between the Uyghur and the Han in Xinjiang, China. PloS one, 8(8), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071829.
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Covention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
General Comment No. 20: Article 7 (Prohibition of Torture, or Other Cruel, Inhuman, Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 10 March 1992.
General Comment No. 35, Article 9 (Liberty and Security of Person), 16 December 2014, CCPR/C/GC/35.
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Case Law
Communication 612/95, Vicente et al. v. Colombia.
Communication No. 1134/2002, Gorji-Dinka v. Cameroon.
Communication No. 1189/2003, Fernando v. Sri Lanka.
Communication No. 1324/2005, Shafiq v. Australia.
Communication No. 1373/2005, Dissanakye v. Sri Lanka.
Communication No. 305/1988, Van Alphen v. Netherlands.
Communication No. 500/2012, Ramirez v. Mexico.
Communication No. 522/2012, Gahungu v. Burundi.
Communication No. 575/2013, Ntahiraja v. Burundi.
Malawi African Association and Others v. Mauritania.
Prosecutor v. André Ntagerura et al., ICTR-99-46-T.
Prosecutor v. DraganNicolic, IT-94-2-T.
Prosecutor v. Furundzija, IT-95-17/1-T.
Prosecutor v. Hadzihansananovic, IT-01-47-T.
Prosecutor v. ZejnilDelalić et al., IT-96-21-T.
United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgments, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p.42.
National Legal Instruments
Counter-Terrorism Law of the People’s Republic of China.
Regulations of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region on Religious Affairs, 2014
Regulations of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region on Religious Affairs Management, 1994.
United Nations Documents
Committee against Torture, Concluding Observations on USA, UN Doc. CAT/C.USA/CO/2.
UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Deliberation No 9 Concerning the Definition and Scope of Arbitrary Deprivation of Liberty under Customary International Law in UN Human Rights Council, ‘Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention’, A/HRC/22/44, 24 December 2012.
Internet
AKI Press. (2018 February 7). Consul of General China Denies Reports on Political Education Camps for Uyghurs in China’s Xinjiang. Retrieved from https://akipress.com/news:602025 (accessed on 02/03/19)
Cronin-Furman K. (2018). China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang – For Now, FP Argument. Retrieved from https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/19/china-has-chosen-cultural-genocide-in-xinjiang-for-now (accessed on 01/03/19)
Daum J. (2018 August 14). XJ Education Centers Exist, but does their legal basis?, China Law Translate. Retrieved from https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/xj-education-centers-exist-but-does-their-legal-basis/?lang=en#_ednref7 (accessed on 3/03/19)
KilicKanat. (2014). Repression in China and Its Consequences in Xinjiang. Retreived from https://www.hudson.org/research/10480-repression-in-china-and-its-consequences-in-xinjiang (accessed on 25/4/19)
Parties, Objections, and Reservation to the Convention against Torture. Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-9&chapter=4&lang=en (accessed on 17/03/2019)
Population by ethnicity, Statistic Bureau of the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, March 15, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.xjtj.gov.cn/sjxc/tjnj-3415-2016xjtjnj/rkjy/201707/t20170714-539451.html (accessed on 02/03/2019)
Radio Free Asia. (2018 January 22). Around 120,000 Uyghurs Detained for Re-education in Xinjiang’s KashgarPerfecture. Retrieved from https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/detentions/01222018171657.html (accessed on 02/03/19)
Shih G. (2018 May) China’s Mass Indoctrination Camp Evoke Cultural Revolution, Associated Press. Retrieved from https://apnews.com/6e151296fb194f85ba69a8babd972e4d (accessed on 02/03/19)
The State Parties to the Rome Statute. Retrieved from https://asp.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/asp/states%20parties/pages/the%20states%20parties%20to%20the%20rome%20statute.aspx (accessed on 3/03/19)
Books
Burgers J. &Danelius H. (1988). The United Nations Convention against Torture. Leiden. The Netherlands: Brill Academy Publisher.
Joseph S., et al. (2005) TheInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Cases, Materials, and Commentary Second Edition. Oxford. UK: Oxford University Press.
Nowak, M. (1993). UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary. Strasbourg. Germany: NP Engel.
Nowak, M. (2002), Introduction to The International Human Rights Regime. Leiden. The Netherlands: Brill Academy Publisher.
Manfred Nowak and Elizabeth McArthur, (2005), The United Nations Convention Against Torture: A Commentary, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Smith R. (2010). Texts and Materials on International Human Rights Second Edition. Abingdon-on-Thames. UK: Routledge.
Trindade, C. (1983). The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law: its Rationale in the International Protection of Individual Rights. England. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wibisono A. (2015). Strategi Kontra-Terorisme Pemerintah Tiongkok dalam Merespon Gerakan Bersenjata Uighur di Wilayah Xinjiang. Depok. Indonesia: Universitas Indonesia.
Journals
Chitimira, H, &Mokone, P. (2017). A General Legislative Analysis of "Torture" as a Human Rights Violation in Zimbabwe. PER: Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad, 20(1), 1-41, 10.17159/1727-3781/2017/v20i0a1271.
Clarke M. (2010). Widening the Net: China's Anti-Terror Laws and Human Rights in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The International Journal of Human Rights, 14(1), 542-554, doi: 10.1080/13642980802710855.
Dugard J, 1982, The Application of Customary International Law Affecting Human Rights by National Tribunal, American Society of International Law, 76, 245-251,doi: 10.1017/S0272503700030755.
Grose T. A., The Xinjiang Class: Education, Integration, and the Uyghurs, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 30(1), 97-109, doi: 10.1017/S1468109915000377.
M. Rayila. (2011). The Pain of a Nation: The Invisibility of Uyghurs in China Proper. The Equal Rights Review, Vol. 6.
McCorquodale R. & La Forgia R. (2001). Taking off the Blindfolds: Torture by non-State Actors. Human Rights Law Review, Vol. 189.
Saragih M. F. (2016). Tinjauan Yuridis Pelanggaran HAM terhadap Muslim Uighur di China Ditinjau dari Hukum Humaniter. Jurnal Fakultas Hukum USU, 4(2).
Trevaskes S. (2007) Severe and Swift Justice in China. British Journal of Criminology, 47(1), 23-41, doi: 10.1093/bjc/azl085.
Vicziany M. (2003). State Responses to Islamic Terrorism in Western China and Their Impact on South Asia. Contemporary South Asia, 12(2), 243-262, doi: 10.1080/095849302000147690.
Zenovic P., 2012, Human Rights Enforcement via Peremptory Norms- A Challenge to State Sovereignty, RSGL Research Papers No. 6
Zenz A. (2018). ‘Thoroughly Reforming Them Towards a Healthy Heart Attitude’: China’s Political Re-Education Campaign in Xinjiang. Central Asian Survey, 38(1), 102-129, doi: 10.1080/02634937.2018.1507997.
Zhang, S., Xu, M., Li, X., Fang, H., Yang, S., & Liu, J. (2013). Implicit Trust between the Uyghur and the Han in Xinjiang, China. PloS one, 8(8), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071829.
International Instruments
Covention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
General Comment No. 20: Article 7 (Prohibition of Torture, or Other Cruel, Inhuman, Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 10 March 1992.
General Comment No. 35, Article 9 (Liberty and Security of Person), 16 December 2014, CCPR/C/GC/35.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Motion for Resolution: European Parliament resolution on Mass arbitrary detention of Uyghurs and Kazakhs in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (2018/2863(RSP)). Retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/B-8-2018-0460_EN.html?redirect (accessed on 22/03/19)
Rome Statute on the International Criminal Court.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
International Reports
Human Rights Watch, “Eradication Ideological Viruses” China’s Campaign of Repression Against Xinjiang’s Muslim, September 2018.
Case Law
Communication 612/95, Vicente et al. v. Colombia.
Communication No. 1134/2002, Gorji-Dinka v. Cameroon.
Communication No. 1189/2003, Fernando v. Sri Lanka.
Communication No. 1324/2005, Shafiq v. Australia.
Communication No. 1373/2005, Dissanakye v. Sri Lanka.
Communication No. 305/1988, Van Alphen v. Netherlands.
Communication No. 500/2012, Ramirez v. Mexico.
Communication No. 522/2012, Gahungu v. Burundi.
Communication No. 575/2013, Ntahiraja v. Burundi.
Malawi African Association and Others v. Mauritania.
Prosecutor v. André Ntagerura et al., ICTR-99-46-T.
Prosecutor v. DraganNicolic, IT-94-2-T.
Prosecutor v. Furundzija, IT-95-17/1-T.
Prosecutor v. Hadzihansananovic, IT-01-47-T.
Prosecutor v. ZejnilDelalić et al., IT-96-21-T.
United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgments, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p.42.
National Legal Instruments
Counter-Terrorism Law of the People’s Republic of China.
Regulations of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region on Religious Affairs, 2014
Regulations of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region on Religious Affairs Management, 1994.
United Nations Documents
Committee against Torture, Concluding Observations on USA, UN Doc. CAT/C.USA/CO/2.
UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Deliberation No 9 Concerning the Definition and Scope of Arbitrary Deprivation of Liberty under Customary International Law in UN Human Rights Council, ‘Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention’, A/HRC/22/44, 24 December 2012.
Internet
AKI Press. (2018 February 7). Consul of General China Denies Reports on Political Education Camps for Uyghurs in China’s Xinjiang. Retrieved from https://akipress.com/news:602025 (accessed on 02/03/19)
Cronin-Furman K. (2018). China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang – For Now, FP Argument. Retrieved from https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/19/china-has-chosen-cultural-genocide-in-xinjiang-for-now (accessed on 01/03/19)
Daum J. (2018 August 14). XJ Education Centers Exist, but does their legal basis?, China Law Translate. Retrieved from https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/xj-education-centers-exist-but-does-their-legal-basis/?lang=en#_ednref7 (accessed on 3/03/19)
KilicKanat. (2014). Repression in China and Its Consequences in Xinjiang. Retreived from https://www.hudson.org/research/10480-repression-in-china-and-its-consequences-in-xinjiang (accessed on 25/4/19)
Parties, Objections, and Reservation to the Convention against Torture. Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-9&chapter=4&lang=en (accessed on 17/03/2019)
Population by ethnicity, Statistic Bureau of the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, March 15, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.xjtj.gov.cn/sjxc/tjnj-3415-2016xjtjnj/rkjy/201707/t20170714-539451.html (accessed on 02/03/2019)
Radio Free Asia. (2018 January 22). Around 120,000 Uyghurs Detained for Re-education in Xinjiang’s KashgarPerfecture. Retrieved from https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/detentions/01222018171657.html (accessed on 02/03/19)
Shih G. (2018 May) China’s Mass Indoctrination Camp Evoke Cultural Revolution, Associated Press. Retrieved from https://apnews.com/6e151296fb194f85ba69a8babd972e4d (accessed on 02/03/19)
The State Parties to the Rome Statute. Retrieved from https://asp.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/asp/states%20parties/pages/the%20states%20parties%20to%20the%20rome%20statute.aspx (accessed on 3/03/19)
Published
2019-04-30
How to Cite
RAKHIMA, Ayu Suci; SATYAWATI, Ni Gusti Ayu Dyah.
Gross Violations of Human Rights Veiled within Xinjiang Political Reeducation Camps.
Kertha Patrika, [S.l.], v. 41, n. 1, p. 1-16, apr. 2019.
ISSN 2579-9487.
Available at: <https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/kerthapatrika/article/view/47699>. Date accessed: 19 nov. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.24843/KP.2019.v41.i01.p01.
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