Compound Word Formation in “ The Old Man and The Sea ” I Made Yoga

This study is entitled Compound Word Formation in “The Old Man and The Sea”. This study focuses on two problems; types of compound words found in the novel and the semantic transparency theypossess. The aims of this study are to find out the types of compound words and also to find and describe the semantic transparency of the compound words found in the novel.The data source used in this study is a novel written by Ernest Hemmingway entitled The Old Man and The Sea. The data which were compound words were collected by using documentation method whereas to analyze the data by using descriptive qualitative method. There were three theories used in this study. The main theories are proposed by O’Grady (1996) about the types of the compound and by Katamba (1993) about classifying the data. The theory proposed by Libben (1998) was used to describe the semantic transparency of the compound words. The results show that the types of compound words found in the novel are endocentric compound and exocentric compounds. However, the endocentric compound was more frequent than the exocentric compound. Based on the second problem, there are four types of semantic transparency ;they are (1) transparency of both members of the compound, (2) transparency of the head member – opacity of the non-head member, (3) transparency of the non-head member – opacity of the head member, (4) opacity of both members of the compound.


Background of the study
Morphology is a branch of linguistics studying forms of words.Morphology can be said as a helping branch for languages in multiplying their vocabulary.For instance, the compound word "lamplight" is the combination of the word "lamp" and "light".Anderson, (1992: 24) stated "morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages".
Since morphology is simply the study of word formation, there are many processes of word formations.O'Grady divided word formation processes into six categories; affixation, cliticization, internal change, suppletion, reduplication, and compounding.Compounding is the combination of lexical categories (nouns, adjectives, verbs, or prepositions) to create a larger word.There are two types of compound word; endocentric and exocentric.These two types of compound word would be analyzed based on their "head", components, and meaning.
Endocentric compounds are by far preferred to exocentric compounds in the languages of the world, because they allow much easier access to the head (Libben, 2006).On the other hand, exocentric compound is a compound which lacks a head word;that is why this kind of compound word is also known as headless compound.Adams (2013) illustrates the term exocentric which describes expressions in which no part seems to be of the same kind as the whole or to be central to it.
It led to the fact that it is interesting to find out the relationship between semantic transparency and the compound word itself, since it is mentioned in Katamba's Morphology that it is impossible to work out what exocentric compound means from the sum of the meanings of its constituents (Katamba, 1993).The novel was chosen as the data source because it is relevant since fictional literary works such as novel provides many compound words, and authors of novel are very fond of playing words and combining them into new words.

Problems of the study a) What types of compound word
formation are found in "The Old Man and The Sea"? b) What types of semantic transparency of compound word are found in "The Old Man and The Sea"?

Aims of the study a)
To find out and explain the types of compound word formation occurring in "The Old Man and The Sea". b) To find out and explain the types of semantic transparency of compound word found in "The Old Man and The Sea".

Research Method
Research method deals with the methods used in designing this study.This section of research method provides four aspects needed to make this study structural.

Data Source
The data of this study is a novel written by Ernest Hemmingway entitled "The Old Man and The Sea". "The Old Man and The Sea" is awarded as the winner of Pulitzer Prize of Fiction in 1953.This novel was chosen as the data source because; first, fictional literary work (novel) has many compound words since the authors are very fond of playing word and combining them into new words.
Second, this novel is well-known by people and it is expected to help the readers easier to understand English compound word found in the novel because the meaning of the compound word would be provided.

Method and Technique of Collecting Data
The data were collected by using a documentation method.The data were limited to the compound words found "The Old Man and The Sea" by Ernest Hemmingway.The techniques used in collecting the data arer; firstly reading the novel carefully, secondly finding and collecting the data in the novel based on the problems being discussed, then classifying them based on their types and semantic transparency.

Method and Technique of Analyzing Data
The method used in this study was descriptive qualitative method.First the data were identified by using note taking technique.Next, the data were classified based on the problems.Lastly, the data were analyzed based on theory proposed by O'Grady (1996) and Katamba (1993) to classify the data, followed by a theory proposed by Libben (1998) to describe the semantic transparency of the compound words.

Method and Technique of Presenting The Result of Data Analysis
The analyzed data were presented in informal method.In presenting the data, this study used tree diagram to support the analysis.The data were analyzed based on their component using a tree diagram in order to find the type of compound word.After classifying the type of compound words, the next step would be looking at their semantic transparency by explaining it descriptively.

Word
: Fisherman Meaning : Person who catches fish.It refers to Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman.Sentence : "You were born to be a fisherman as the fish was born to be a fish."(Hemmingway, 1952: 29) Components : The first noun compound which is going to be analyzed is fisherman.The word fisherman is formed from two word elements.Those word elements are from the same categories fisher (N) and man (N).The word fisher means one who fishes while the word man means an individual human.After they are combined, they become a new word fisherman (noun).The meaning of the word fisherman is a person who catches fish.From its meaning it can be seen that the head is man which is modified by the word fisher.Therefore, the word fisherman is an endocentric compound.

Word
:Everything Meaning :Everything there is: all that exists Sentence : "Besides, he thought, everything kills everything else in some way."(Hemmingway, 1952: 30) Components : The next noun compound which is going to be analyzed is everything.The word everything is formed from two word elements.Unlike the previous data, this dataif formed from different categories which are adjective (every) and noun (thing).The word every means being each individual or part of a group without exception, while the word thing means an object or entity not precisely designated or capable of being designated.After they are combined, they become a new word everything (noun).From the meaning of each element, it can be seen that the meaning of the word everything is parallel with its elements.Therefore, the word everything is an endocentric compound.

lapping over
The word overlapping is formed from two word elements.Those words are over and lapping.The word over means on top of something, while lapping means to fold over especially into layers.From those two elements it can be seen that the meaning of the word overlapping is parallel with its elements, and also the head which is lapping percolates the entire compound.Therefore, this kind of word is an endocentric compound.

Word
: Hawk-bills Meaning : The hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate) is a critically endangered sea turtle belonging to the family Cheloniidae.This turtle is loved by the old man.Sentence : "He loved green turtles and hawk-bills with their elegance and speed and…" (Hemmingway, 1952: 9) Components : The compound noun hawk-bills is formed from two word elements which are hawk and bills.The word hawk means any of numerous diurnal birds of prey belonging to a suborder and including all the smaller members of this group, and the word bills means the jaws of a bird together with their horny covering.Together they form the word hawk-bills, which refers to a certain species of turtle.Even though the elements of the compound have a head and a modifier, the word hawk-bills is not a kind of bills rather than it is a certain species of a turtle, therefore, it is an exocentric compound.

Word
: Broadbill Meaning : Swordfish, also known as broadbills in some countries, are large, highly mandatory, predatory fish characterized by a long, flat bill.
Sentence : "It could have been a marlin or a broadbill or a shark (Hemmingway, 1952: 14) Components : The compound word broadbill consists of two word elements, which are the word broad (Adj.)and the word bill (N).The definition of the word broad means large from one side to the other side, while the word bill means the jaws of a bird together with their horny covering.After they are combined they become a new word broadbill.The word broadbill which refers to a certain kind of fish does not parallel with its constituents, broad and bill, as the meaning is opaque.Consequently, the compound word broadbill is an exocentric compound.

3) Compound Verb
There was no compound verb data found in the novel, it is neither a preposition followed by a verb nor verb followed by preposition.

Types of Semantic Transparency 1) Transparency of both members of the compound
Word : Fisherman Meaning : person who catches fish.It refers to Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman.The word fisherman is transparent both of its constituents, because the word fisher means one that fishes while man means an individual human.Both of its constituents match with the meaning of the word fisherman above.So, the word fisherman is fully transparent 2) Transparency of the head member opacity of the non-head member Word : Man-of-war bird Meaning : Frigatebirds are family of seabirds called fregatidae which are found across all tropical and subtropical oceans.This bird helps the old man locate the location of the fish.The word that determines the whole compound in this data is bird because the word man-of-war bird refers to a certain type of bird; therefore, the head is bird, and it is transparent.On the other hand, the meaning of the hyphened non-head member man-of-war is opaque, because the characteristics of the mentioned bird have no relation with the word man-of-war.Therefore, this word is considered as transparency of the head memberopacity of the non-head member.

3) Transparency of the non-head memberopacity of the head member
Word : Clear-headed Meaning : having or showing an ability to think clearly.The only transparency of the nonhead member and opacity of the head member that can be found in this novel is clear-headed.The head headed which determines the whole compound in this data is opaque, because the word headed in this context means the mind or the ability to think not the head.In contrast, the non-head member is transparent because the word clear which means free from doubt and confusion matches with the meaning of the word clear-headed above.

4) Opacity of both members of the compound
Word : Loggerheads Meaning : The loggerhead sea turtle (carettacaretta) is an oceanic turtle belonging to the family Cheloniidae.This turtle is disliked by the old man.The word loggerheads isopacity of both constituents because the constituents of this compound are opaque.It can be seen from the meaning of the word loggerheads above that have neither relation with loggernorheads, rather than it refers to a species of an oceanic turtle.

Conclusion
Based on the discussion in Chapter 3, it was found that compound words can be classified into two types which are endocentric compound and exocentric compound, and every compound has a different type of semantic transparency.
The finding of the discussion answering the first problem of this study, was to find the types of compound word found in The Old Man and The Sea novel.The result is that there are two types of compound words according to its head, whether the compound has a head or not.The endocentric can be located from its head that mostly on the right part of the constituents, in which it determines the whole compound.On the other hand, exocentric is also known as headless compound, having no head, because none of its constituents that can determine the meaning of the whole compound.As known, the endocentric compound was far more plenty in number compared to exocentric compound, and that also happened in this research that exocentric is fewer than endocentric.
The second problem was to find the types of semantic transparency of the compound words in The Old Man and The Sea novel.From the discussion above, it can be seen that there are four types of semantic transparency based on Libben (1998); they are; (1) transparency of both members of the compound, (2) transparency of the head memberopacity of the non-head member, (3) transparency of the non-head memberopacity of the head member, (4) opacity of both members of the compound.
Moreover, based on the discussion above that the semantic transparency is related to the type of the compound word.It can be seen that all of the endocentric compounds have transparency of both members, while exocentric can be on other three types of semantic transparency, but most of them are opacity of both members of the compound.
light produced by stars Sentence : "The dolphin was cold and a leprous gray-white now in the starlight and the old man skinned one side of him while he held his right foot on the fish's head."Components :The word starlight is a noun compound formed from two word elements.Those two word elements are from the same categories star (N) + light (N).The word star means any one of the objects in space that are made of burning gas and that look like points of light in the night sky and the word light means something that makes vision possible.After they are combined, they become a new word starlight (noun).The meaning of the word lamplight is the light produced by stars; it means that the head light is parallel with the modifier star.Therefore, this is the kind of endocentric compound.
lie over the edge of (something): to cover part of the edge of (something) Sentence : "On the brown walls of the flattened,