The Impact of Globalization on Welfare and Gender Equality in Indonesia

In recent years, there has been a growing debate about the future of globalization, with some calling for a reevaluation of its principles and practices. Issues such as income inequality, people’s welfare, and the impact on local communities have prompted discussions on how to make globalization more inclusive, sustainable, and equitable. In this study, there are three topics that will be discussed. First, this study will analyze the impact of economic globalization measured by foreign direct investment on people’s welfare and gender equality. Second, this study will analyze the impact of social globalization measured by the proportion of individuals with mobile phones and the number of foreign guests at star-rated hotels on people’s welfare and gender equality. Third, this study will analyze the impact of gender equality on people's welfare. This research used data from 34 provinces in Indonesia for the period of 2015-2021, which was sourced from the Central Bureau of Statistics. The data analysis methods employed in this research are Panel Least Squares and Panel Cross-Section Random Effects. This research discovered both positive and negative impacts of globalization. On the positive side, social globalization manifested through increased mobile phone ownership, positively impacting the human development index, life expectancy, and gender equality. Gender equality also positively impacts human development index and life expectancy. On the negative side, foreign direct investment has failed to yield a positive impact on welfare. Furthermore, the presence of foreign tourists staying in star-rated hotels has a negative impact on life expectancy and gender equality.


INTRODUCTION
People's welfare is a long-term development goal that every country aspires to achieve.In order to achieve this goal, the government will make trade and agreements with other countries which have brought the world toward the globalization era.
Globalization enables people to consume goods and services, make investments, work, and earn income from other countries, along with facilitating the exchange of ideas, culture, and technology (Held et al., 1999;Carbaugh, 2011;Mukherjee & Krieckhaus, 2012).The advantages of globalization are a case that has caused debate among researchers−where the impacts of globalization are different for each person within a country (Artner, 2004;Tomohara & Takii, 2011;Akhter & Ward, 2015).
On the negative side, globalization could increase income inequality (Oyvat, 2011;Han et al., 2012;Asteriou et al., 2014;Wong, 2016).According to Chomsky (2011), free trade benefits those who are close to resources, such as investors, professionals, and skilled workers but tends to put women, minorities, and unskilled workers at a disadvantage.
On the positive side, research shows that globalization might improve poor people's incomes through foreign investments and international trade (Maertens et al., 2011).Globalization also has a positive impact on women's rights (Neumayer & De Soysa, 2011).
Globalization has fostered cultural exchange and understanding among different societies.
(2) On the other hand, the Random Effect model is deemed the most suitable for models (3), ( 5), and (6).The research also discovered that NFT had a negative and significant impact on GEI (Figure 3).This study's results are corroborated by Jackman Tourism may have a negative influence on gender equality in a variety of ways.First, women are frequently employed in low-wage and low-status professions in the tourist business, such as cleaning and serving, whereas males are employed in higher-paying and higher-status employment, such as management and technical tasks (Gentry, 2007;Wotha, et al., 2017).
Second, the tourist sector, particularly in places where sex tourism is prevalent, could contribute to the exploitation of women and girls (Jeffreys, 1999;Taylor, 2006).

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three dimensions: economic, social, and political.Social globalization is easier to achieve with the internet and social media −which enable rapid and lowcost dissemination of information, ideas, and culture from other countries.Social globalization will increase people's awareness about welfare conditions in other countries and enable society to learn the policies which other countries are taking in order to improve the welfare of their citizens (Mukherjee & Krieckhaus, 2012).Mukherjee and Krieckhaus also discovered that social globalization had a significant impact on reducing infant and child mortality and increasing life expectancy.Globalization is not only related to welfare and inequality but also has an impact on women's involvement in the economy.Globalization through longterm foreign investments is able to improve women's access to education et al., 2021).For this reason, it is necessary to carry out gender-based social inclusion because it provides benefits for the country, society, and economy.When domestic culture is more open to international cultural influences, it will have a positive impact on women−as measured by women's health, literacy, and participation in the economy and government, as well as improving gender equality (Gray et al., 2006).According to studies conducted in China, women's economic welfare improves when they move from the traditional agricultural sector or nonincome-generating household jobs to a manufacturing sector that develops with foreign investments or export-oriented industries (Chen et al., 2013).

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Indonesia Foreign Direct Investment, 2014-March 2023.Source: tradingeconomics.com Figure 1 shows that Indonesia's foreign direct investment in the period of 2014 to March 2023 continues to experience an increasing trend.Foreign investment and trade activities, both export and import, have increased as a result of economic globalization.
HDIit = α + γ1GEIit + γ2PFMit + eit ….. (5) LEit = α + γ1GEIit + γ2PFMit + eit …….. (6) Panel Least Squares and Panel Cross-Section Random Effects are the methods of data analysis used in this research.The best model for Panel Data Analysis is based on the Chow and Hausman Test, indicating that the Fixed-Effect model is the most appropriate for models (1), (2), and (4).

FDI
000)*** note: *** p ≤ 0,01, ** p ≤ 0,05, * p ≤ 0,1 Furthermore, corruption is one of the aspects that determine the final outcome of FDI and HDI.Pearson correlation test was used to test the correlation between HDI and FDI.The findings of a Pearson correlation test between HDI and FDI are shown in Table 1.The HDI and FDI data used for Pearson's correlation test are from 34 provinces in Indonesia, from 2015 to 2021.Pearson's correlation coefficient between FDI and HDI is 0.261 and significant at the 0.01 level of significance.The score of 0.261 indicates that the correlation between FDI and HDI in 34 provinces in Indonesia,

Figure 3 .Figure 4 .Figure 5 .
Figure 3.The Impact of Social Globalization Measured by NFT on Welfare and Gender Equality note: *** p ≤ 0,01, ** p ≤ 0,05, * p ≤ 0,1 , in an effort to increase the life expectancy of elderly citizens, mobile phones are connected to a health management system to monitor key health indicators of elderly citizens, so that medical teams may give quick aid in the case of an emergency (Kim et al., 2014).Mobile phones could indirectly increase life expectancy by easing access to healthcare information and resources, as well as allowing people to contact emergency services quickly and easily in the case of an accident or health crisis.Mobile phone penetration may bring a positive impact on gender equality in certain ways.Mobile phones can provide women with greater access to information and communication, allowing them to participate more actively in economic and social activities (Nath, 2001; Chip, 2010).In addition to providing women with more control over their own resources, such as using mobile banking services to manage their finances without needing to physically travel to a bank.phones by women to access information in order to increase knowledge and improve skills, will increase opportunities of being hired as employment in managing roles.Positive Impact of GEI and PFM on HDI and LE The results of the data analysis, as depicted in Figure 5, revealed that prioritizing gender equality and giving it more attention can lead to better opportunities for women to work on an equal footing with men.This, in turn, can have a significant and positive impact on the increase of HDI and LE.Gender equality plays a crucial role in promoting human development.It refers to equal rights, opportunities, and responsibilities for all individuals regardless of their gender.When gender equality is upheld, it leads to a more inclusive and just society in which everyone may attain their full potential and contribute to the community'al., 2021), and economic results for individuals, families, and society as a whole (Mitra et al., 2014

Future
speed.This policy is a continuation of the policies in the first point, by decreasing corruption, the government can distribute investments more evenly and increase the welfare of people, especially through HDI.Better communication can also help increase LE because health information can be easily accessed in emergency situations.Third, the government can also make policies that create more opportunities for all genders to participate in economic and social events.Equality, especially in education will have a long-term effect on the HDI.Of course, not all fields of work can be divided equally, but by having opportunities for all genders to access education, the increase in HDI in turn will also increase LE. with these factors in different national contexts.

Table 1 .
Pearson Correlation Test multicollinearity test indicated that none of the independent variables in the models had values greater than 0.8, so it can be concluded that this research does not have issues with multicollinearity.